In chapter 5 of The One-Minute Meditator, we summarize the latest medical research on the healthful effects of meditation through 2001. See below for citations. Since we published the book, thousands of studies on meditation have been published in the scientific literature. Please see research posted online by the National Libary of Medicine.

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101 . . . conscious intention. Dacher, Elliott. 1994. Lecture presented at Council Grove, Kansas.

102 . . . peripheral blood-vessel resistance. Barnes measured total peripheral vasoconstriction (TPR) in a study of people performing Transcendental Meditation for 20 minutes. See Barnes, V. A., F. A. Treiber, H. C. Davis, and W. B. Strong. 1999. Effects of Transcendental Meditation on Cardiovascular Reactivity in Adolescents with High Normal Blood Pressure. Psychosomatic Medicine (Abstracts) 61:124.

102 . . . more than one thousand scientific studies. More than 1,000 studies had been performed by 1997. See page 11 of Murphy, Michael, and Steven Donovan. 1997. The Physical and Psychological Effects of Meditation: A Review of Contemporary Research with a Comprehensive Bibliography, 1931-1996. Edited by E. Taylor. Sausalito, California: Institute of Noetic Sciences.

102 . . . they offer evidence of how meditation can play a key role. Although many studies demonstrate the healthful benefits of meditation, scientists note the need for more randomized clinical trials conducted with rigorous research methodologies. See Bishop, Scott R., 2002. What Do We Really Know About Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction? Psychosomatic Medicine 64 (2002):71-84.

102 . . . proven through systematic research. See page 1 of Parker, Marcie, Edward Bergmark, and Mark Attridge. 1997. The Mind-Body Connection: Outcomes Research in the Real World. In Primary Care Meets Mental Health: Tools for the 21st Century, edited by J. D. Haber and G. E. Mitchell. Tiburon, California: CentraLink Publications.

104 . . . one of four adult Americans has high blood pressure. Data from Scientific American, 1997.

105 . . . meditation consistently lowers blood pressure. The decline lasted only as long as meditators kept up regular meditation. It went back to hypertensive levels within four weeks of meditators quitting meditation. See pages 144-145 of Benson, Herbert, MD. 1975. The Relaxation Response. Avon paperback ed. New York: William Morrow and Company. See also the original research in Benson, Herbert, and R. Keith Wallace. 1972. Decreased Blood Pressure in Hypertensive Subjects Who Practiced Meditation. Circulation 46 (1 (supplement II)):130. As an example of one recent study confirming these results (in African Americans), see Schneider R. H.; F Staggers; C. N. Alexander; W. Sheppard; M. Rainforth; K. Kondwan; S. Smith; and C. G. King. 1995. A randomised controlled trial of stress reduction for hypertension in older African Americans. Hypertension, 1995 Nov, 26:5, 820-7.

105 . . . confirmed Benson’s results. See Benson, Herbert, Arthur Kornhaber, Carol Kornhaber, Mila N. LeChanu, Patricia C. Zuttermeister, Patricia Myers, and Richard Friedman. 1994. Increases in Positive Psychological Characteristics With a New Relaxation-Response Curriculum in High School Students. See also Alexander, Charles N., Robert H. Schneider, Frank Staggers, William Sheppard, B. Mawiyah Clayborne, Maxwell Rainforth, John Salerno, Kofi Kondwani, Sandra Smith, Kenneth G. Walton, and Brent Egan. 1996. Trial of Stress Reduction for Hypertension in Older African Americans. Hypertension 28 (2):228-237. See also Barnes, V. A., F. A. Treiber, H. C. Davis, and W. B. Strong. 1999. Effects of Transcendental Meditation on Cardiovascular Reactivity in Adolescents with High Normal Blood Pressure. Psychosomatic Medicine (Abstracts) 61:124. Benson and his colleagues also showed that meditation reduces blood pressure in normotensive patients. See Peters, Ruanne K., Herbert Benson, and John M. Peters. 1977. Daily Relaxation Response Breaks in a Working Population: II. Effects on Blood Pressure. American Journal of Public Health 67 (10):954-959.

105 . . . The women’s diastolic fell 6 points, the men’s 8. See Alexander, Charles N., Robert H. Schneider, Frank Staggers, William Sheppard, B. Mawiyah Clayborne, Maxwell Rainforth, John Salerno, Kofi Kondwani, Sandra Smith, Kenneth G. Walton, and Brent Egan. 1996. Trial of Stress Reduction for Hypertension in Older African Americans. Hypertension 28 (2):228-237.

105 . . . Scientists found that people who meditated lowered ambulatory diastolic pressure. See Wenneberg S. R.; R. H. Schneider; K. G. Walton; C. R. Maclean; D. K. Levitsk; J. W. Salern; R. K. Wallac; J. V. Mandarino; M. V. Rainfort; and R. Waziri. 1997. A controlled study of the effects of the Transcendental Meditation program on cardiovascular reactivity and ambulatory blood pressure. Int J Neurosci, Jan, 89:1-2, 15-28.

106 . . . this amount of thinning has a marked effect. See Castillo-Richmond, Amparo, Robert H. Schneider, Charles N. Alexander, Robert Cook, Hector Myers, Sanford Nidich, Chinelo Haney, Maxwell Rainforth, and John Salerno. 2000. Effects of Stress Reduction on Carotid Atherosclerosis in Hypertensive African Americans. Stroke 31 (3):568-573.

107 . . . one third said their pain was greatly improved. See Kabat-Zinn, J., L. Lipworth, R. Burney, and W. Sellers. 1987. Four-Year Follow-Up of a Meditation-Based Program for the Self-Regulation of Chronic Pain: Treatment Outcomes and Compliance. The Clinical Journal of Pain 2:159-173.

107 . . . two thirds drops in three symptoms: anxiety, depression, and hostility. See Kabat-Zinn, Jon, Leslie Lipworth, and Robert Burney. 1985. The Clinical Use of Mindfulness Meditation for the Self-Regulation of Chronic Pain. Journal of Behavioral Medicine 8 (2):163-190. See also other recent research on pain: McCarberg, Bill, and Janet Wolf. 1999. Chronic pain management in a health maintenance organization. Clinical-Journal-of-Pain: 15(1): 50-57.

108 . . . markedly speed skin clearing for psoriasis sufferers. See Kabat-Zinn, Jon, Elizabeth Wheeler, Timothy Light, Anne Skillings, Mark J. Scharf, Thomas G. Cropley, David Hosmer, and Jeffrey D. Bernhard. 1998. Influence of a Mindfulness Meditation-Based Stress Reduction Intervention on Rates of Skin Clearing in Patients with Moderate to Severe Psoriasis Undergoing Phototherapy (UVB) and Photochemotherapy (PUVA). Psychosomatic Medicine 60:625-632.

109 . . . those with severe PMS improved an average 58 percent with meditation. See Goodale, Irene L., Alice D. Domar, and Herbert Benson. 1990. Alleviation of Premenstrual Syndrome Symptoms With the Relaxation Responses. Obstetrics & Gynecology 75 (4):649-655.

109 . . . insomnia. See Myers, Patricia, Richard Friedman, and Herbert Benson. 2000. Meditation. In Encyclopedia of Psychology, edited by A. E. Kazdin. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

109 . . . asthma. See Sriram, T. G., and Joel J. Silverman. 1998. The Effects of Stress on the Respiratory System. In Handbook of Stress Medicine: An Organ Systems Approach, edited by J. R. Hubbard and E. A. Workman. Boca Raton: CRC Press.

109 . . . infertility. See Myers, Patricia, Richard Friedman, and Herbert Benson. 2000. Meditation. In Encyclopedia of Psychology, edited by A. E. Kazdin. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

109 . . . high cholesterol. See Cooper, Michael J., and Maurice M. Aygen. 1979. A Relaxation Technique in the Management of Hypercholesterolemia. Journal of Human Stress 5 (4):24-27. In this preliminary study, the meditation group lowered its cholesterol from a mean of 254 to 225.

109 . . . headaches. See Benson, Herbert, Helen P. Klemchuk, and John R. Graham. 1974. The Usefulness of the Relaxation Response in the Therapy of Headache. Headache 14 (April):49-52.

109 . . . a hormone (DHEAS) linked with youth. See Glaser, J. L., J. L. Brind, J. H. Bogelman, M. J. Eisner, M. C. Dillbeck, R. K. Wallace, D. Chopra, and N. Orentreich. 1992. Elevated serum dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate levels in practitioners of the Transcendental Meditation (TM) and TM-Sidhi programs. J Behav Med: 15(4):327-41

109 . . . further research. For an exhaustive summary of research on meditation’s benefits, see Murphy, Michael, and Steven Donovan. 1997. The Physical and Psychological Effects of Meditation: A Review of Contemporary Research with a Comprehensive Bibliography, 1931-1996. Edited by E. Taylor. Sausalito, California: Institute of Noetic Sciences.

109 . . . cancer patients. For reference on the topic of stress and malignancy, see Cohen, Mitchell J. M., Elisabeth Shakin Kunkel, and James L. Levenson. 1998. Associations Between Psychosocial Stress and Malignancy. In Handbook of Stress Medicine: An Organ Systems Approach, edited by J. R. Hubbard and E. A. Workman. Boca Raton: CRC Press. A recent study found that meditation can significantly reduce cancer patients' stress level, reducing "mood disturbance" by 65 percent and symptoms of stress by 31 percent.. See Speca, Michael, et al. A Randomized, Wait-List Controlled Clinical Trial: The Effect of a Mindfulness Meditation-Based Stress Reduction Program on Mood and Symptoms of Stress in Cancer Outpatients. Pyschosomatic Medicine 62 (2000): 613-622.

109 . . . one unpublished study. See Davidson, R. J., Kabat-Zinn, J., Harrington, A., et al. Manuscript submitted. For up-to-date status, see www.umassmed.edu/cfm/research/findings.cfm

111 . . . breathing out I smile." See Hanh, Thich Nhat. 1975. The Miracle of Mindfulness: A Manual on Meditation. Boston: Beacon Press.

112 . . . overall level of mental stress plunged roughly by half. See Shapiro, Shauna L., Gary E. Schwartz, and Ginny Bonner. 1998. Effects of Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction on Medical and Premedical Students. Journal of Behavioral Medicine 21 (6):581-599.

112 . . . felt more in control of their lives. See Astin, John A. 1997. Stress Reduction Through Mindfulness Meditation. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics 66:97-106.

112 . . . did much better than those who had meditated for less than a month. See Davidson, Richard J., Daniel J. Goleman, and Gary E. Schwartz. 1976. Attentional and Affective Concomitants of Meditation: A Cross-Sectional Study. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 85 (2):235-238.

112 . . . a disabling anxiety disorder at some time. See Short, Delmar D. 1998. Pharmacologic Treatment for Anxiety Disorders. In Handbook of Stress Medicine: An Organ Systems Approach, edited by J. R. Hubbard and E. A. Workman. Boca Raton: CRC Press.

113 . . . less tension and nervousness. See Benson, Herbert, Fred H. Frankel, Roberta Apfel, Michael D. Daniels, Henry E. Schniewind, John C. Nemiah, Peter E. Sifneos, Karen D. Crassweller, Martha M. Greenwood, Jamie B. Kotch, Patricia A. Arns, and Bernard Rosner. 1978. Treatment of Anxiety: A Comparison of the Usefulness of Self-Hypnosis and a Meditational Relaxation Technique. Psychother. Psychosom. 30:229-242.

113 . . . Kabat-Zinn also studied patients with anxiety disorders. See Miller, John J., Ken Fletcher, and Jon Kabat-Zinn. 1995. Three-Year Follow-up and Clinical Implications of a Mindfulness Meditation-Based Stress Reduction Intervention in the Treatment of Anxiety Disorders. General Hospital Psychiatry 17:192-200. See also Kabat-Zinn, Jon, Ann O. Massion, Jean Kristeller, Linda Gay Peterson, Kenneth E. Fletcher, Lori Pbert, William R. Lenderking, and Saki F. Santorelli. 1992. Effectiveness of a Meditation-Based Stress Reduction Program in the Treatment of Anxiety Disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry 149 (7):936-943. For a more recent study that demonstrates significantly enhanced health-related quality of life, reduced physical symptoms, and decreased psychological distress, see Reibel, Diane, et al.. 2001.Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction and Health-Related Quality of Life in a Heterogeneous Patient Population. General Hospital Psychiatry 23: 183-192.

113 . . . a pilot study. Study performed by the author, David Nichol, MD.

114 . . . relapse rates in depressed patients dropped in half. See Teasdale, J. D., Segal, Z. V., Williams, J. M., Ridgeway, V. A., Soulsby, J. M., & Lau, M. A. 2000. Prevention of Relapse/Recurrence in Major Depression by Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy. J Consult Clin Psychol 68 (2000):615-23.

114 . . . turn people away from drugs, tobacco, and alcohol. For a good review of studies through 1996, see Murphy, Michael, and Steven Donovan. 1997. The Physical and Psychological Effects of Meditation: A Review of Contemporary Research with a Comprehensive Bibliography, 1931-1996. Edited by E. Taylor. Sausalito, California: Institute of Noetic Sciences.

115 . . . cut back sharply or kick the habit. See Gelderloos, Paul, Kenneth G. Walton, David W. Orme-Johnson, and Charles N. Alexander. 1991. Effectiveness of the Transcendental Meditation Program in Preventing and Treating Substance Misuse: A Review. International Journal of the Addictions 26 (3):293-325.

115 . . . studies in the 1970s. See pages 150-153 of Benson, Herbert, MD. 1975. The Relaxation Response. Avon paperback ed. New York: William Morrow and Company.

115 . . . help with personal growth. See, for example, K. Sridevi, P. Rao, and V. Krishna. 1998. Temporal effects of meditation and personality. Psychological-Studies: 43(3): 95-105.

116 . . . study of boys in a camp for juvenile delinquents. See Charles A. Flinton. 1998. The effects of meditation techniques on anxiety and locus of control in juvenile delinquents. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B:The Sciences and Engineering.1998: 59(2-B): 0871.

116 . . . mild tendency toward increased internal control. See Benson, Herbert, Arthur Kornhaber, Carol Kornhaber, Mila N. LeChanu, Patricia C. Zuttermeister, Patricia Myers, and Richard Friedman. 1994. Increases in Positive Psychological Characteristics With a New Relaxation-Response Curriculum in High School Students. Journal of Research and Development in Education 27 (4):226-231.

116 . . . improve concentration, attention, memory, and mental performance. See, for example, Hall, Pamela D. 1999. The Effect of Meditation on the Academic Performance of African American College Students. Journal of Black Studies 29 (3):408-415.

118 . . . The ailments Optum has pinpointed as needing such integrated care. See page 3 of Parker, Marcie, Edward Bergmark, and Mark Attridge. 1997. The Mind-Body Connection: Outcomes Research in the Real World. In Primary Care Meets Mental Health: Tools for the 21st Century, edited by J. D. Haber and G. E. Mitchell. Tiburon, California: CentraLink Publications.

122 . . . You also see yourself...as the biggest player in helping you get better. An excellent first-hand account of the decision to combine meditation and medication can be found in Carr, Sheva. 1999. Medi?ation: Meditation and Medication in a Personal Tale of Clinical Depression. Perspectives in Biology and Medicine 43 (1):98-102.

123 . . . Roth was the first to gauge the success of meditation with SF36. Personal communication with Beth Roth, April 5, 2000. See also Robbins, Dianne. 1999. "Stress Reduction and Relaxation in the Inner City: Health Status in a Bilingual Mindfulness-Based Meditation Program." Yale School of Nursing. New Haven. For a more recent study gauging improvement against the SF-36 criteria, see Reibel, Diane, et al.. 2001.Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction and Health-Related Quality of Life in a Heterogeneous Patient Population. General Hospital Psychiatry 23 (2001): 183-192.

123 . . . Meditation is not a good idea in some cases. For a review of potential problems, see Murphy, Michael, and Steven Donovan. 1997. The Physical and Psychological Effects of Meditation: A Review of Contemporary Research with a Comprehensive Bibliography, 1931-1996. Edited by E. Taylor. Sausalito, California: Institute of Noetic Sciences. Additional references to contraindications appear in the following citations: Bogart, Greg. 1991. The Use of Meditation in Psychotherapy: A Review of the Literature. American Journal of Psychotherapy 45 (3):383-412. Delmonte, Michael M. 1990. The Relevance of Meditation to Clinical Practice: An Overview. Applied Psychology: An International Review 39 (3):331-354. Epstein, Mark. 1990. Psychodynamics of Meditation: Pitfalls on the Spiritual Path. Journal of Transpersonal Psychology 22 (1):17-34. Epstein, Mark D., and Jonathan D. Lieff. 1981. Psychiatric Complications of Meditation Practice. Journal of Transpersonal Psychology 13 (2):137-147.

125 . . . Irritatable bowel syndrome. Recent clinical research suggests that meditation can markedly improve the symptoms of patients with irritable bowel syndrome, especially abdominal pain and bloating. See Keefer, L., and E.B. Blanchard. 2002. A One Year Follow-Up of Relaxation Resonse Meditation as a Treatment for Irritable Bowel Syndrome. Behaviour Research and Therapy 40 (2002): 541-546.